Everybody who really knows me knows that anything that is in someway, shape or form, related to psychology I would be interested in. I watch a movie and I find something that has something to do with psychology. Once, I was watching a movie (for the life of me I can not remember the title and right now I wish I did) about a woman who believed that her baby was evil and was trying to kill her and destroy her family. Well, in the movie she became depressed after giving birth to her child and these beliefs came about during her depression. The first thing I thought was "Postpartum Depression with Psychotic features!" AND, this was when I was still a sophomore in undergrad obviously before I started grad school and took Psychopathology!
I am such a psychologist/therapist!
Anyway, I love everything to do with psychology, counseling, or therapy that I don't ever seem to know exactly what to do with this blog! At first, I was going to write short "papers" but when I tried that I don't ever seem to post more than one or two entries a year which obviously does not work. Also, those "short papers" always seem to be WAY to long to read as a blog post, which means that probably no body ever will ever read it! Well, I am trying to think of ways to redesign and rethink my blog and still have as "me!" I want my blog as being unique to me, something that is new and different.
So far, I am thinking I will try to focus my blog to the specific topics of psychology which most interests me which are: depression, self-esteem, anxiety (specifically Post Traumatic Stress Disorder), women's issues, and specific issues specific to the military. Hopefully, by focusing this I can possibly post a bit more often than once or twice a year!
The Early Years of the American Psychological Association
I am proud to be a student affiliate of the American Psychological Association (APA) and I will be attending the annual convention this year. As this will be my first time attending the annual convention of the APA, I thought I would post on the history of the APA and their convention.
The American Psychological Association was formed in 1892 by a small group at Clark University with G. Stanley Hall as the first president (APA History). G. Stanley Hall, at the time, was also the president of Clark University. He invited this group of seven men to discuss the formation of an association to discuss psychological matters. At this time, they chose Hall as the president of the association and had determined the next meeting should be at the University of Pennsylvania in December of 1892 (The American Psychological Association: A Historical Summary 1892-1930).
The constitution of the APA was written at the annual meeting of 1894. This constitution gave requirements for membership, election of officers, and along with other duties of the association (The American Psychological Association: A Historical Summary 1892-1930). This article (which I provided a link to in the previous citation) discusses the constitution which was written in 1894. It is interesting to note that in this constitution there were only two classifications of membership: members and associates. I am not sure when they added affiliate membership such as students, high school teachers, and community college teachers.
Membership of the APA remained relatively low for the first 50 years of its existence although it quickly picked up after the World War II. During WWII the APA reorganized which resulted in a broader conceptualization of psychology (APA History).
References
American Psychological Association. APA History and Archives. retrieved from http://www.apa.org/about/archives/apa-history.aspx
Green, C. D. (2000). The American Psychological Association: A Historical Summary 1892-1930 retrieved from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Fernberger/1932/history.htm
The American Psychological Association was formed in 1892 by a small group at Clark University with G. Stanley Hall as the first president (APA History). G. Stanley Hall, at the time, was also the president of Clark University. He invited this group of seven men to discuss the formation of an association to discuss psychological matters. At this time, they chose Hall as the president of the association and had determined the next meeting should be at the University of Pennsylvania in December of 1892 (The American Psychological Association: A Historical Summary 1892-1930).
The constitution of the APA was written at the annual meeting of 1894. This constitution gave requirements for membership, election of officers, and along with other duties of the association (The American Psychological Association: A Historical Summary 1892-1930). This article (which I provided a link to in the previous citation) discusses the constitution which was written in 1894. It is interesting to note that in this constitution there were only two classifications of membership: members and associates. I am not sure when they added affiliate membership such as students, high school teachers, and community college teachers.
Membership of the APA remained relatively low for the first 50 years of its existence although it quickly picked up after the World War II. During WWII the APA reorganized which resulted in a broader conceptualization of psychology (APA History).
References
American Psychological Association. APA History and Archives. retrieved from http://www.apa.org/about/archives/apa-history.aspx
Green, C. D. (2000). The American Psychological Association: A Historical Summary 1892-1930 retrieved from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Fernberger/1932/history.htm
Negative Effects of Polygamy and Islamic Women's Coping Through Spirituality
Polygamy, the practice of having more than one spouse, is practiced through out the world including western societies. Some studies have stated that nearly eighty percent of societies have polygamous marriages although the true percentage is unknown (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2001). This is partially through the fact in many western societies, including the United States, do not recognize polygamous marriages as being legal which forces many polygamous families to remain silent of their practice. Polygamy is practiced in small groups through out North America and Europe but mostly practiced through out the Middle East, Africa, Asia, and Oceana (Widyaningrum, 2005; Al-Krenawi, 2001). In fact, some studies have stated that polygamous marriages can be as much as 20-50% in some African countries (Slonim-Nevo, & Al-Krenawi, 2006).
There are several reasons proponents gives for practicing polygamy and, more specifically polygyny, one husband having two or more wives. One of which is allowing women, who would other wise remain single, to get married. These would be single mothers, former prostitutes, and older women. Many religions which supports polygamy states that it would be unfair for these women to be without husbands. Articles have mentioned that some men prefer polygamy because it increases the number of children, specifically male children (Slonim-Nevo & Al-Krenawi, 2006).
Many religious proponents will bring up the fact that both Abraham and David had hundreds of wives and they were still favored by God. Also, many would say that there is no law within the Bible which specifically condemns polygamy. Because of the polygamous practices in the Old Testament, up to the eleventh century many Jewish sects would allow a man to have multiple wives. In fact, a few Rabbis in Israel will allow a man to take another wife if his first wife is unable have children (IslamReligion, 2006). As with Judaism, all three Abrahamic religions have, some still do, practice polygamy.
Along with a few sects of Judaism and Christianity, Muslims also practice polygamy to this day. Unlike the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (LDS) where polygamy is an intricate part of their spirituality, Muslims simply allow the practice and they do not rely on it spiritually. Unlike in Judaism and Christianity, polygamy in Islam is regulated stating how many women a can marry and how they should be treated. In Islam, a man can marry up to four women and they must all be treated with equality. Also, a man is prohibited in marrying another woman if, in so doing, either wife would be treated unfairly. Marriage in Islam, unlike other religions, is secured with a contract between the couple and defines the responsibilities between both partners. Within this contract, the wife may be able to state that her husband can not marry another woman (Badawi).
Although polygamy has been practiced by numerous religions and for centuries, the effects of the practice can be detrimental to women. Women in polygamous marriages are more likely to have psychological conditions than women in monogamous marriages (Al-Krenawi, 1999; 2001). These effects can be attributed to the practice of polygamy in general and not necessarily to one religion or another. Despite physical, psychological, and “religious” abuse, Islamic women finds a great strength in their spirituality to cope and survive.
Effects of Polygamy
Often times in polygamous marriages, several harmful effects comes from it including pitting co-wives against each other and various forms control over the wives. Physical, emotional, and sexual abuse are found within polygamous marriages, as in monogamous marriages, although it is not the only negative effect wives suffer with. Often times the wives have to compete with each other just for attention from their husband and they often feel jealous when their husband is with one of the other wives ( Widyaningrum, 2005).
Physical, Sexual, and Emotional Abuse
Abuse comes in many different forms within a polygamous marriage as it does in a monogamous marriage. Also, it is often times, used as a source of controlling wives within the marriage. Physical, psychological, “religious” abuse, or exploitation of religion, can be used by husband to control their wives. In polygamous marriages, abuse comes in many different forms and , often times, carried out by more than the husband. A study found that in a majority of cases where severe abuse occurred in polygamous marriages, the women often times entered into it unwillingly. Some husbands chose to keep subsequent marriages a secret from the senior wives. Even when junior wives are known, the addition of wives causes significant stress as it means a change in family and economic structure (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2001).
Within Islam, men can marry multiple wives but they must treat them equally and this is where most of the abuse can stems from. Wives from abusive polygamous marriages have stated that it is the inequality within their marriage and not polygamy itself which caused the abuse (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2001). Jealousy and uncertainty basically runs the lives of women within polygamous marriages. Often times, wives feels jealous toward the other wife while the husband is with them. When the husband does return to the other wife, she is unable to be with him sexually as she is thinking of the time when he was not with her. This can lead to sexual abuse to the wife as the husband can force or coerce her into it (Widyaningrum, 2005).
Mental Health Issues
Although Islamic women are allowed to work outside the home, women often times must receive permission from their husbands in order to work. As they need their husband permission, many women do not work which can create harder economic problems than a monogamous family has as their husband's must be divided between families. The addition of wives, abuse, and economic problems all can create emotional difficulties for the women involved. Many of these difficulties can be expressed through physical symptoms, as is expected and accepted in some Bedouin-Arab societies (Al-Krenawi, 2001). Al-Krenawi (1999) also discussed how senior wives, wives who were married longer, tended to have much lower self-esteem than do junior wives. This comes from how these terms are viewed in Bedouin-Arab society, generally senior wives are viewed as “old” wives while junior wives are considered “young” wives. Self-esteem can also be lower when senior wives view the addition of a wife is because they were unable to fulfill the duties of being a wife.
“Religious” Abuse, Or Exploitation of Religion
Women of Islam can and do have many rights granted to them and many of which are granted to them by the Qur'an. During marriage, both bride and groom agrees to a contract and if either side breaks that contract then divorce in allowed and expected. A spouse can ask for divorce if the other partner had become abusive and neglectful. Also, in regards in inheritance and property, an Islamic woman is under no requirement to share earnings or inheritance with any one unless she consents. Finally, according to the Islamic faith, God is the only master to women and if their husbands do not represent God then the marriage contract is broken (Maqsood).
Despite women being afforded rights and equality within the Islamic faith, religion can also become a form of abuse when the interpretation is used to control women. This is seen in most, if not all, patriarchal religions and not just Islam. Widyaningrum (2005) mentioned in their study that husbands have told their wives a verse which promises eternal life in heaven if they accept their husband's remarriage. The wife was originally unaccepted of her husband's remarriage until her husband coerced her into it by showing that Allah honors women in polygamous marriages. Abusive husbands, often times, manipulate religious texts in order to manipulate their wives into accepting the polygamous marriage and subsequent physical and sexual abuse.
Islamic Women's Spirituallity
Abuse and the mistreatment of women can be prevalent in polygamous marriages no matter the religious belief. The abuse and mistreatment can lead to question the purpose of living. The trauma of marrital violence causes women to question their own safety, spirituality, the meaningfulness of life (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2003). Spirituality have been found to be both a source of strength and weakness among Muslim women who have been abused (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2003; Widyaningrum, 2005). For many women, spirituality was a source of hope, which allowed them to cope, and a source of despondence.
Spirituality as a Form of Coping
Islamic women's spirituality can give the women strength to cope with the inequality, abuse, and emotional difficulties which can arise in a polygamous life. There are several ways which Muslim women rely on their faith to help them cope. Many women rely on prayer, recitation of the Qur'an, and meditation to help them. Hassouneh-Phillips (2003) mentioned that women felt comforted when they prayed to Allah. They mentioned that they felt they could appeal to Allah directly through prayer and through this they felt that He was the only source of support. This has been supported by Widyaningrum (2005) who found that wives in polygamous marriage found a personal relationship with Allah through prayer. The wives in the study also stated they felt comforted through their prayers to Allah for help and guidance.
Another form of spiritual coping which Islamic women have found helpful, was Qur'anic recitation. This is a poetic and rhythmic recitations of verses from the Qur'an which can be listened to either in person or on tape. Many Muslims have stated that this can be a source of great inspiration and comfort (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2003). A Scriptural source of support and comfort have been used by women in Judaism, and Christianity because it provides a source of comfort through knowing that others have felt this way and God has never abandoned them.
Another form of spiritual coping which Islamic women found helpful was meditations which is similar to Qur'anic recitation. Women would focus on repeating verses from the Qur'an or other religious verses to dissociate form immediate harm or to drown out suicidal thoughts. This was form of coping was most common to try to protect themeselves from an immediate threat (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2003; Widyaningrum, 2005).
Spirituality and the Loss of Hope
Although spirituality can give a person a great strength to endure abuse, spirituality can also lend to a person questioning the purpose of living. As part of any religion, Muslim women are taught that they would be rewarded in heaven if they suffer in life. This, in part, can give strength but it can also send a message that life does not ultimately matter (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2003). Also, as husbands manipulates the religious texts, women learn that it is useless to fight against the abuse which happens and it is their duty to accept what is given to them. Women then can enter a state of learned helplessness and give up hope.
Conclusion
Although Muslim requires husbands to treat their wives equally, polygamous marriages tend to be unequal and through the inequality creates abuse and emotional difficulties for the women within the marriage. Despite the abuse, emotional difficulties, and manipulation of religious texts, Muslim women find ways to cope with the negative effects of polygamy through their spirituality. As do women of other faiths, Islamic women hold onto to their belief in God and go to Him through prayer and meditation to handle abuse and feelings of depression.
Within abusive relationships in general, Islamic women's faith can be transformed or remain the same. Women's faith can remain the same with no difference in their interpretation of religious texts while some keeps their faith but reinterpret religious texts (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2003). Women who reinterpret religious texts recognize that part of the interpretations of the Qur'an came from others so they come to form their own interpretations. Although this comes from a study of women in abusive relationships, this can also be applied to women in abusive polygamous marriages.
Spirituality plays a vital part in the lives of women in polygamous marriages whether it is a way of coping or as a manipulated tool against them. It is important to understand the many ways in which spirituality can play a part not only for Islamic women but for women in general. Spirituality can supply a deep sense of support for women which may not be available any other way. Despite the possible negative effects of manipulation of religious texts, many Islamic women kept their faith either through believing in the ultimate good of their religious texts or developing their own interpretations of it.
References
Al-Krenawi, A. (1999). Women of polygamous marriages in primary health care centers. Contemporary Family Therapy, 21, 417-430.
Al-Krenawi, A. (2001). Women from polygamous and monogamous marriages in an out-patient psychiatric clinic. Transcultural Psychiatry, 38, 187-199. DOI: 10.1177/136346150103800203
Badawi, J. Polygamy in Islamic law. Islam for Today. Retrieved from http://www.islamfortoday.com/polygamy5.htm retrieved on December 20, 2010.
Hassouneh-Phillips, D. (2001) Polygamy and wife abuse: A qualitative study of Muslim women in America. Health Care for Women International, 22, 736-748.
Hassouneh-Phillips, D. (2003) Strength and vulnerability: Spirituality in abused American Muslim women's lives. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 24, 681-694.
IslamReligion (2006). Polygamy in Judaism and Christianity. Retrieved from http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/326/
Maqsood, R. W. Islam, culture and women. Islam for Today. Retrieved from http://www.islamfortoday.com/ruqaiyyah09.htm
Widyaningrum, N. (2005) Women's experiences in polygamous marriages: A study of nature of, forms, effects on and responses of abused wives in polygamous marriages in Temanggung, Central Java, Indonesia. (Unpublished Master's Thesis) Mahidol University, Thailand. Retrieved from http://www.sh.mahidol.ac.th/hssip/theses/2003/2.pdf
There are several reasons proponents gives for practicing polygamy and, more specifically polygyny, one husband having two or more wives. One of which is allowing women, who would other wise remain single, to get married. These would be single mothers, former prostitutes, and older women. Many religions which supports polygamy states that it would be unfair for these women to be without husbands. Articles have mentioned that some men prefer polygamy because it increases the number of children, specifically male children (Slonim-Nevo & Al-Krenawi, 2006).
Many religious proponents will bring up the fact that both Abraham and David had hundreds of wives and they were still favored by God. Also, many would say that there is no law within the Bible which specifically condemns polygamy. Because of the polygamous practices in the Old Testament, up to the eleventh century many Jewish sects would allow a man to have multiple wives. In fact, a few Rabbis in Israel will allow a man to take another wife if his first wife is unable have children (IslamReligion, 2006). As with Judaism, all three Abrahamic religions have, some still do, practice polygamy.
Along with a few sects of Judaism and Christianity, Muslims also practice polygamy to this day. Unlike the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (LDS) where polygamy is an intricate part of their spirituality, Muslims simply allow the practice and they do not rely on it spiritually. Unlike in Judaism and Christianity, polygamy in Islam is regulated stating how many women a can marry and how they should be treated. In Islam, a man can marry up to four women and they must all be treated with equality. Also, a man is prohibited in marrying another woman if, in so doing, either wife would be treated unfairly. Marriage in Islam, unlike other religions, is secured with a contract between the couple and defines the responsibilities between both partners. Within this contract, the wife may be able to state that her husband can not marry another woman (Badawi).
Although polygamy has been practiced by numerous religions and for centuries, the effects of the practice can be detrimental to women. Women in polygamous marriages are more likely to have psychological conditions than women in monogamous marriages (Al-Krenawi, 1999; 2001). These effects can be attributed to the practice of polygamy in general and not necessarily to one religion or another. Despite physical, psychological, and “religious” abuse, Islamic women finds a great strength in their spirituality to cope and survive.
Effects of Polygamy
Often times in polygamous marriages, several harmful effects comes from it including pitting co-wives against each other and various forms control over the wives. Physical, emotional, and sexual abuse are found within polygamous marriages, as in monogamous marriages, although it is not the only negative effect wives suffer with. Often times the wives have to compete with each other just for attention from their husband and they often feel jealous when their husband is with one of the other wives ( Widyaningrum, 2005).
Physical, Sexual, and Emotional Abuse
Abuse comes in many different forms within a polygamous marriage as it does in a monogamous marriage. Also, it is often times, used as a source of controlling wives within the marriage. Physical, psychological, “religious” abuse, or exploitation of religion, can be used by husband to control their wives. In polygamous marriages, abuse comes in many different forms and , often times, carried out by more than the husband. A study found that in a majority of cases where severe abuse occurred in polygamous marriages, the women often times entered into it unwillingly. Some husbands chose to keep subsequent marriages a secret from the senior wives. Even when junior wives are known, the addition of wives causes significant stress as it means a change in family and economic structure (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2001).
Within Islam, men can marry multiple wives but they must treat them equally and this is where most of the abuse can stems from. Wives from abusive polygamous marriages have stated that it is the inequality within their marriage and not polygamy itself which caused the abuse (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2001). Jealousy and uncertainty basically runs the lives of women within polygamous marriages. Often times, wives feels jealous toward the other wife while the husband is with them. When the husband does return to the other wife, she is unable to be with him sexually as she is thinking of the time when he was not with her. This can lead to sexual abuse to the wife as the husband can force or coerce her into it (Widyaningrum, 2005).
Mental Health Issues
Although Islamic women are allowed to work outside the home, women often times must receive permission from their husbands in order to work. As they need their husband permission, many women do not work which can create harder economic problems than a monogamous family has as their husband's must be divided between families. The addition of wives, abuse, and economic problems all can create emotional difficulties for the women involved. Many of these difficulties can be expressed through physical symptoms, as is expected and accepted in some Bedouin-Arab societies (Al-Krenawi, 2001). Al-Krenawi (1999) also discussed how senior wives, wives who were married longer, tended to have much lower self-esteem than do junior wives. This comes from how these terms are viewed in Bedouin-Arab society, generally senior wives are viewed as “old” wives while junior wives are considered “young” wives. Self-esteem can also be lower when senior wives view the addition of a wife is because they were unable to fulfill the duties of being a wife.
“Religious” Abuse, Or Exploitation of Religion
Women of Islam can and do have many rights granted to them and many of which are granted to them by the Qur'an. During marriage, both bride and groom agrees to a contract and if either side breaks that contract then divorce in allowed and expected. A spouse can ask for divorce if the other partner had become abusive and neglectful. Also, in regards in inheritance and property, an Islamic woman is under no requirement to share earnings or inheritance with any one unless she consents. Finally, according to the Islamic faith, God is the only master to women and if their husbands do not represent God then the marriage contract is broken (Maqsood).
Despite women being afforded rights and equality within the Islamic faith, religion can also become a form of abuse when the interpretation is used to control women. This is seen in most, if not all, patriarchal religions and not just Islam. Widyaningrum (2005) mentioned in their study that husbands have told their wives a verse which promises eternal life in heaven if they accept their husband's remarriage. The wife was originally unaccepted of her husband's remarriage until her husband coerced her into it by showing that Allah honors women in polygamous marriages. Abusive husbands, often times, manipulate religious texts in order to manipulate their wives into accepting the polygamous marriage and subsequent physical and sexual abuse.
Islamic Women's Spirituallity
Abuse and the mistreatment of women can be prevalent in polygamous marriages no matter the religious belief. The abuse and mistreatment can lead to question the purpose of living. The trauma of marrital violence causes women to question their own safety, spirituality, the meaningfulness of life (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2003). Spirituality have been found to be both a source of strength and weakness among Muslim women who have been abused (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2003; Widyaningrum, 2005). For many women, spirituality was a source of hope, which allowed them to cope, and a source of despondence.
Spirituality as a Form of Coping
Islamic women's spirituality can give the women strength to cope with the inequality, abuse, and emotional difficulties which can arise in a polygamous life. There are several ways which Muslim women rely on their faith to help them cope. Many women rely on prayer, recitation of the Qur'an, and meditation to help them. Hassouneh-Phillips (2003) mentioned that women felt comforted when they prayed to Allah. They mentioned that they felt they could appeal to Allah directly through prayer and through this they felt that He was the only source of support. This has been supported by Widyaningrum (2005) who found that wives in polygamous marriage found a personal relationship with Allah through prayer. The wives in the study also stated they felt comforted through their prayers to Allah for help and guidance.
Another form of spiritual coping which Islamic women have found helpful, was Qur'anic recitation. This is a poetic and rhythmic recitations of verses from the Qur'an which can be listened to either in person or on tape. Many Muslims have stated that this can be a source of great inspiration and comfort (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2003). A Scriptural source of support and comfort have been used by women in Judaism, and Christianity because it provides a source of comfort through knowing that others have felt this way and God has never abandoned them.
Another form of spiritual coping which Islamic women found helpful was meditations which is similar to Qur'anic recitation. Women would focus on repeating verses from the Qur'an or other religious verses to dissociate form immediate harm or to drown out suicidal thoughts. This was form of coping was most common to try to protect themeselves from an immediate threat (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2003; Widyaningrum, 2005).
Spirituality and the Loss of Hope
Although spirituality can give a person a great strength to endure abuse, spirituality can also lend to a person questioning the purpose of living. As part of any religion, Muslim women are taught that they would be rewarded in heaven if they suffer in life. This, in part, can give strength but it can also send a message that life does not ultimately matter (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2003). Also, as husbands manipulates the religious texts, women learn that it is useless to fight against the abuse which happens and it is their duty to accept what is given to them. Women then can enter a state of learned helplessness and give up hope.
Conclusion
Although Muslim requires husbands to treat their wives equally, polygamous marriages tend to be unequal and through the inequality creates abuse and emotional difficulties for the women within the marriage. Despite the abuse, emotional difficulties, and manipulation of religious texts, Muslim women find ways to cope with the negative effects of polygamy through their spirituality. As do women of other faiths, Islamic women hold onto to their belief in God and go to Him through prayer and meditation to handle abuse and feelings of depression.
Within abusive relationships in general, Islamic women's faith can be transformed or remain the same. Women's faith can remain the same with no difference in their interpretation of religious texts while some keeps their faith but reinterpret religious texts (Hassouneh-Phillips, 2003). Women who reinterpret religious texts recognize that part of the interpretations of the Qur'an came from others so they come to form their own interpretations. Although this comes from a study of women in abusive relationships, this can also be applied to women in abusive polygamous marriages.
Spirituality plays a vital part in the lives of women in polygamous marriages whether it is a way of coping or as a manipulated tool against them. It is important to understand the many ways in which spirituality can play a part not only for Islamic women but for women in general. Spirituality can supply a deep sense of support for women which may not be available any other way. Despite the possible negative effects of manipulation of religious texts, many Islamic women kept their faith either through believing in the ultimate good of their religious texts or developing their own interpretations of it.
References
Al-Krenawi, A. (1999). Women of polygamous marriages in primary health care centers. Contemporary Family Therapy, 21, 417-430.
Al-Krenawi, A. (2001). Women from polygamous and monogamous marriages in an out-patient psychiatric clinic. Transcultural Psychiatry, 38, 187-199. DOI: 10.1177/136346150103800203
Badawi, J. Polygamy in Islamic law. Islam for Today. Retrieved from http://www.islamfortoday.com/polygamy5.htm retrieved on December 20, 2010.
Hassouneh-Phillips, D. (2001) Polygamy and wife abuse: A qualitative study of Muslim women in America. Health Care for Women International, 22, 736-748.
Hassouneh-Phillips, D. (2003) Strength and vulnerability: Spirituality in abused American Muslim women's lives. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 24, 681-694.
IslamReligion (2006). Polygamy in Judaism and Christianity. Retrieved from http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/326/
Maqsood, R. W. Islam, culture and women. Islam for Today. Retrieved from http://www.islamfortoday.com/ruqaiyyah09.htm
Widyaningrum, N. (2005) Women's experiences in polygamous marriages: A study of nature of, forms, effects on and responses of abused wives in polygamous marriages in Temanggung, Central Java, Indonesia. (Unpublished Master's Thesis) Mahidol University, Thailand. Retrieved from http://www.sh.mahidol.ac.th/hssip/theses/2003/2.pdf
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